Heritable epigenetic modifications as markers of chemotherapy exposure

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are epigenetic modifications that are associated with prior exposure to chemotherapy agents. In particular, differential DNA methylation regions (DMRs) that are characteristic of, and can thus be used to identify and/or treat, a male subject who has undergone chemotherapy are provided. The DMRs are used to screen for pregnancy complications, infertility, and passage of heritable mutations to an infant.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. utility patent application Ser. No. 16/939,287, filed Jul. 27, 2020, which is a continuation of U.S. utility patent application Ser. No. 16/274,579, filed Dec. 13, 2019, which is a divisional of U.S. utility patent application Ser. No. 15/446,028, filed Mar. 1, 2017, which claims benefit of U.S. provisional patent application 62/301,651, filed Mar. 1, 2016, the complete contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under grant nos. ES012974 and HD053984 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

LENGTHY TABLE

This application includes Table 10 the complete contents of the accompanying text file “Table10.txt”, created Feb. 15, 2017, containing 369 kilobytes, hereby incorporated by reference.

LENGTHY TABLES The patent application contains a lengthy table section. A copy of the table is available in electronic form from the USPTO web site (https://seqdata.uspto.gov/?pageRequest=docDetail&DocID=US20220364176A1). An electronic copy of the table will also be available from the USPTO upon request and payment of the fee set forth in 37 CFR 1.19(b)(3).

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The invention generally relates to the identification of epigenetic modifications that are associated with prior exposure to chemotherapy agents. In particular, the invention provides differential DNA methylation regions (DMRs) that are characteristic of, and can thus be used to identify and/or treat, a male subject who has undergone chemotherapy. The DMRs are used to screen for pregnancy complications, infertility, and passage of heritable mutations to an infant.

Background of the Invention

The current paradigm for the etiology of heritable diseases, including those caused by environmental insult, is based primarily on mechanisms of genetic alterations such as DNA sequence mutations. However, the majority of inherited diseases have not been linked to specific genetic abnormalities or changes in DNA sequence. In addition, the majority of environmental factors known to cause or influence the development of disease—including heritable diseases—do not have the capacity to alter DNA sequence. Therefore, additional molecular mechanisms need to be taken into account when attempting to clarify the etiology of diseases and to develop diagnostic tools and treatments.

A factor to consider in disease etiology is the importance of early life exposures and events that are critical in later adult onset disease. These developmental origins of disease require a molecular mechanism that does not involve the induction of genetic abnormalities or alterations in DNA sequence. A molecular mechanism that has been shown to mediate the actions of environmental factors on disease is epigenetics. Epigenetics is defined as molecular factors and processes around DNA that regulate genomic activity independent of DNA sequence, and that are mitotically stable. Epigenetic processes include DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin structure changes, and some small RNA's.

During migration of the primordial germ cell down the genital ridge the germ cell genome (DNA) becomes demethylated upon colonization of the embryonic gonad. At the onset of gonadal sex determination the germ line then is re-methylated in a sex specific manner. Therefore, the exposure of an environmental factor during this period has the ability to alter the germ line epigenome and if permanently modified can promote a transgenerational phenotype. Therefore, the basic molecular mechanism proposed for environmentally induced epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of adult onset disease involves: 1) environmental exposure during the gonadal sex determination period; 2) alteration in the epigenetic programming (DNA methylation) of the primordial germ cell; 3) permanent alteration in the male germ line epigenome with imprinted-like programming that escapes the de-methylation of DNA at fertilization and during early embryonic development; 4) transmission of the altered sperm epigenome (DNA methylation) to subsequent generations, similar to imprinted-like sites; 5) all cell types and tissues that develop from the sperm have an altered epigenome and transcriptome specific to the cell type or tissue; and 6) increased susceptibility to develop adult onset disease. The transmission of epigenetic information between generations in the absence of any direct environmental exposures is defined as epigenetic transgenerational inheritance.

Advances in chemotherapy-based curative therapy for childhood cancer have led to a significant improvement in outcome, such that long-term survival approaches 80% [1]. This has resulted in an increasing focus on the later life effects of chemotherapy and quality of life in the growing population of survivors of childhood, adolescent and young adult (AYA) cancer. The toxic effect of cancer chemotherapy on reproductive health is one of the most important challenges faced by male childhood and AYA cancer survivors and is a leading cause of decreased quality of life in this population [2-5]. The impact of chemotherapy on subsequent generations has not been previously considered outside the realm of induced genetic mutations. The availability of ancestral environmental epigenetic biomarkers would significantly facilitate the research and development of new screening methods for the identification of subjects whose fertility has been affected by chemotherapy treatment, thus informing future fertility decisions.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

One aspect of the invention provides a method of determining if a male subject has been exposed to a chemotherapy agent comprising obtaining at least one genomic DNA sequence from a semen sample from said male subject; identifying the presence or absence of an epigenetic modification at one or more regions of said at least one genomic DNA, wherein said epigenetic modification comprises at least one differential DNA methylation region (DMR) listed in Table 6 or Table 10; and determining that said subject has been exposed to a chemotherapy agent if said epigenetic modification is identified to be present in said at least one genomic DNA sequence.

In some embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises a plurality of DMRs selected from the group listed in Table 6 or Table 10. In other embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises each DMR listed in Table 6 or Table 10. In some embodiments, the chemotherapy agent is at least one of cisplatin and ifosfamide.

Another aspect of the invention provides a method of screening for pregnancy complications, infertility, and passage of heritable mutations to an infant attributable to a male subject that has previously undergone chemotherapy treatment comprising obtaining at least one genomic DNA sequence from a semen sample from said male subject that has previously undergone chemotherapy treatment; identifying the presence or absence of an epigenetic modification at one or more regions of said at least one genomic DNA, wherein said epigenetic modification comprises at least one DMR listed in Table 6 or Table 10; and indicating that said subject is at high risk of infertility or of passing heritable mutations which can lead to pregnancy complications or mutations in an infant if said epigenetic modification is identified to be present in said at least one genomic DNA sequence.

In some embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises a plurality of DMRs selected from the group listed in Table 6 or Table 10. In other embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises each DMR listed in Table 6 or Table 10. In some embodiments, the male subject underwent chemotherapy treatment for a period of time at an age prior to reproduction. In some embodiments, the male subject underwent chemotherapy treatment for a period of time at an age from 14 and 20 years old. In some embodiments, the chemotherapy treatment comprised at least one of cisplatin and ifosfamide.

A further aspect of the invention provides a method for the early intervention and treatment of a male subject who is suspected of or who has been exposed to chemotherapy treatment, comprising obtaining at least one genomic DNA sequence from a semen sample from said male subject that has previously undergone chemotherapy treatment; identifying the presence or absence of an epigenetic modification at one or more regions of said at least one genomic DNA, wherein said epigenetic modification comprises at least one DMR listed in Table 6; indicating that said subject is at high risk of infertility or of passing heritable mutations which can lead to pregnancy complications or mutations in an infant if said epigenetic modification is identified to be present in said at least one genomic DNA sequence; and administering an appropriate treatment protocol to said subject determined to be at high risk of infertility or of passing heritable mutations which can lead to pregnancy complications or mutations in an infant.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Human sperm chemotherapy-associated DMR chromosome location. The DMR locations on the individual chromosomes are presented as an arrowhead. Only DMR containing at least two significant sites at a p-value threshold of 1e-04 are shown. The box under the chromosome line represents statistically significant overrepresented clusters of DMR within the chromosomal size of the box.

FIG. 2. The human sperm chemotherapy-associated all site DMR locations on the individual chromosomes is presented. All site (single and multiple site) DMR are represented with an arrowhead and the DMR clusters with a box. All site DMRs at a p-value threshold of 1e-04 are shown.

FIG. 3A-B. Human sperm chemotherapy-associated DMR genomic feature and size. A) The CpG density of the DMR is presented as number of CpG/100 bp with the corresponding number of DMR. B) The DMR length in kilobase pairs (kb) is presented with the corresponding DMR number. Only DMR containing multiple significant windows at a p-value threshold of 1e-04 are shown.

FIG. 4. The human sperm chemotherapy-associated DMR associated gene classifications (i.e. functional categories). The number of DMR associated genes for specific classification categories are presented.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Epigenetic transgenerational inheritance provides an alternative molecular mechanism for germ line transmission of environmentally induced phenotypic change compared to that of classic genetics. Most factors do not have the ability to modify DNA sequence, but environmental factors such as nutrition or various toxicants can influence epigenetic processes to mediate alterations in genome activity. Environmental epigenetics focuses on how a cell or organism responds to environmental factors or insults to create altered phenotypes or disease. Until the present invention, it was previously unknown how chemotherapy or radiotherapy treatment affected the epigenetic programming of a germ line and whether such impact could influence later life fertility and epigenetic inheritance.

Described herein are the altered DNA methylation profiles in the germ line (sperm) of male subjects after exposure to chemotherapy agents. In particular, Table 6 provides statistically significant epimutations, termed DMRs, that were identified in the germ line of male subjects who had undergone chemotherapy treatment. Due to the imprinted-like nature of the altered epigenetic DNA methylation sites, the germ line (sperm) transmit this epigenome phenotype to subsequent generations, which is termed epigenetic transgenerational inheritance. Without being bound by theory, the basic mechanism involves the ability of an environmental factor, such as a chemotherapeutic agent, to alter the germ line DNA methylation program to promote imprinted-like sites that then transmit an altered epigenome phenotype transgenerationally. In some cases, environmental exposures act on somatic cells at critical windows of development to influence phenotype and/or disease in the individual exposed, but this will not become transgenerational. In the event the critical window for the primordial germ cell is affected by environmental exposure, the altered germ line has the ability to promote a transgenerational phenotype for subsequent generations.

Epigenetic regulatory sites and epigenetic mutation sites (such as those involving differential DNA methylation) have profound regulatory effects on gene expression, cell function and the development of abnormal physiology and disease. The presence of such sites in the germline (e.g. sperm) can promote epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of, e.g. adult onset disease. Therefore, identification of these epimutations and/or epigenetic control regions (referred to collectively herein as “epigenetic control regions” or “ECRs”) is critical to understanding disease etiology and heritable conditions that do not follow classic Mendelian genetics, and to the diagnosis and treatment of such conditions.

Provided herein are DMRs which are useful for the identification of subjects who have undergone chemotherapy or radiotherapy treatment. In some embodiments, the methylation level is determined by a cytosine. In some embodiments, the DMRs are associated with certain genes in an individual. In some embodiments, the DMRs are associated with certain CpG loci. The CpG loci may be located in the promoter region of a gene, in an intron or exon of a gene or located near the gene in a patient's genomic DNA. In an alternate embodiment, the CpG may not be associated with any known gene or may be located in an intergenic region of a chromosome. In some embodiments, the CpG loci may be associated with one or more than one gene.

In some instances, the DMRs described herein are found in CpG desert regions of the genome, e.g. a CpG density of about 10% or less or a mean around two CpG per 100 base pairs. Due to the evolutionary conservations of CpG clusters in a CpG desert, these are likely epigenetic regulatory sites. Additional genomic features of characteristic of ECRs are described in U.S. Patent Publication 2013/0226468 incorporated herein by reference. Those of skill in the art will recognize that the “%” of a sequence of interest (e.g. CpG) means that the sequence occurs the indicated number of times per 100 base pairs analyzed, e.g. 15% or less CpG means that the dinucleotide sequence C followed by G occurs at most 15 times per 100 base pairs within a DNA segment that is analyzed. Analyses are usually carried out by iterative analysis of consecutively overlapping sequences within a large DNA molecule of interest, e.g. a chromosome, a section of a chromosome, etc.

The DMRs provided herein allow for determining if a male subject has been exposed to a chemotherapy agent comprising obtaining at least one genomic DNA sequence from a semen sample from said male subject; identifying the presence or absence of an epigenetic modification at one or more regions of said at least one genomic DNA, wherein said epigenetic modification comprises at least one differential DNA methylation region (DMR) listed in Table 6; and determining that said subject has been exposed to a chemotherapy agent if said epigenetic modification is identified to be present in said at least one genomic DNA sequence.

In some embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises a plurality of DMRs selected from the group listed in Table 6. In other embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises all 135 DMRs listed in Table 6. In some embodiments, the epigenetic modification consists of all 135 DMRs listed in Table 6. In some embodiments, the chemotherapy agent is at least one of cisplatin and ifosfamide.

Contemplated herein is the use of one or more DMRs listed in Table 10. Table 10 includes human sperm DMR for all DMR sites, single and multiple, at a p-value threshold of 1e-04. The DMR name, chromosome location, start and stop base pair location, length in base pair (bp), number of significant windows (100 bp), p-value, number of CpG sites, CpG sites per 100 bp, and DMR associated gene symbol (annotation) are provided.

A “plurality” as used herein refers to two or more DMRs, for example, two, three, four, five, six, and every integer up to and including all 135 DMRs listed in Table 6. A plurality may also refer to two or more DMRs listed in Table 10 and every integer up to and including all DMRs listed in Table 10.

Another aspect of the invention provides a method of screening for pregnancy complications, infertility, and passage of heritable mutations to an infant attributable to a male subject that has previously undergone chemotherapy treatment comprising obtaining at least one genomic DNA sequence from a semen sample from said male subject that has previously undergone chemotherapy treatment; identifying the presence or absence of an epigenetic modification at one or more regions of said at least one genomic DNA, wherein said epigenetic modification comprises at least one DMR listed in Table 6 or Table 10; and indicating that said subject is at high risk of infertility or of passing heritable mutations which can lead to pregnancy complications or mutations in an infant if said epigenetic modification is identified to be present in said at least one genomic DNA sequence.

In some embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises a plurality of DMRs selected from the group listed in Table 6 or Table 10. In other embodiments, the epigenetic modification comprises each DMR listed in Table 6 or Table 10. In some embodiments, the male subject underwent chemotherapy treatment for a period of time at an age prior to reproduction. In some embodiments, the male subject underwent chemotherapy treatment for a period of time at an age from 14 and 20 years old, e.g. at 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 years old. In some embodiments, the subject was under 14 years old or above 20 years old at the time of treatment. In some embodiments, the chemotherapy treatment comprised at least one of cisplatin and ifosfamide.

“Epimutation” and “epigenetic modification” as used herein refer to modifications of cellular DNA that affect gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. The epigenetic modifications are both mitotically and meiotically stable, i.e. after the DNA in a cell (or cells) of an organism has been epigenetically modified, the pattern of modification persists throughout the lifetime of the cell and is passed to progeny cells via both mitosis and meiosis. Therefore, with the organism's lifetime, the pattern of DNA modification and consequences thereof, remain consistent in all cells derived from the parental cell that was originally modified. Further, if the epigenetically modified cell undergoes meiosis to generate gametes (e.g. sperm), the pattern of epigenetic modification is retained in the gametes and thus inherited by offspring. In other words, the patterns of epigenetic DNA modification are transgenerationally transmissible or inheritable, even though the DNA nucleotide sequence per se has not been altered or mutated. Without being bound by theory, it is believed that enzymes known as methyltransferases shepherd or guide the DNA through the various phases of mitosis or meiosis, reproducing epigenetic modification patterns on new DNA strands as the DNA is replicated. Exemplary epigenetic modifications include, but are not limited, to DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin structure modifications, and non-coding RNA modifications, etc.

Epigenetic modifications may be caused by exposure to any of a variety of factors, examples of which include but are not limited to: chemical compounds e.g. endocrine disruptors such as vinclozolin; chemicals such as those used in the manufacture of plastics e.g. bispheol A (BPA); bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP); dibutyl phthalate (DBP); insect repellants such as N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET); pyrethroids such as permethrin; various polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, known as PCDDs or dioxins e.g. 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD); extreme conditions such as abnormal nutrition, starvation, etc. In preferred embodiments, the subject of the invention has been exposed to one or more chemotherapeutic agents which include alkylating agents such as ifosfamide and cyclophosphamide, anthracyclines such as daunorubicin and doxorubicine, taxanes such as paclitaxel and docetaxel, epothilones, histone deacetylase inhibitors, topoisomerase inhibitors, kinase inhibitors such as gefitinib, platinum-based agents such as cisplatin, retinoids, and vinca alkaloids, etc. These agents may be used to treat a variety of cancers, including but not limited to, an osteosarcoma, lymphoma, melanoma, etc.

Methods of identifying DMRs in genomic DNA are well known to one skilled in the art. For example, microarray based methylome profiling and bioinformatics data analysis may be used to analyze DNA methylation profiles. In some embodiments, the microarray chip is a tiling array chip. In some embodiments, Methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) followed by next generation sequencing (NGS) is used. In some embodiments, MeDIP-Chip is used. Additional methods for detecting methylation levels can involve genomic sequencing before and after treatment of the DNA with bisulfite. When sodium bisulfite is contacted to DNA, unmethylated cytosine is converted to uracil, while methylated cytosine is not modified. Bisulfite methods may also be used in conjunction with pyrosequencing and PCR. Computer executable algorithms and software programs for implementing the same are also encompassed by the invention. Such software programs generally contain instructions for causing a computer to carry out the steps of the methods disclosed herein. The computer program will be embedded in a non-transient medium such as a hard drive, DVD, CD, thumb drive, etc.

The invention also provides kits for the detection and/or quantification of the epigenetic modification described herein using the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the kit comprises at least one polynucleotide that hybridizes to one of the DMR loci identified in Table 6 or Table 10 (or a nucleic acid sequence at least 90% identical to the DMR loci of Table 6 or Table 10), or that hybridizes to a region of DNA flanking one of the DMR loci identified in Table 6 or Table 10, and at least one reagent for detection of gene methylation, Reagents for detection of methylation include, e.g., sodium bisulfite, polynucleotides designed to hybridize to sequence at or near the DMR loci of the invention if the sequence is not methylated, and/or a methylation-sensitive or methylation-dependent restriction enzyme. The kits can provide solid supports in the form of an assay apparatus that is adapted to use in the assay. The kit may further comprise detectable labels, optionally linked to a polynucleotide, e.g., a probe, in the kit. Other materials useful in the performance of the assays can also be included in the kit, including test tubes, transfer pipettes, and the like. The kit can also include written instructions for the use of one or more of these reagents in any of the assays described herein.

Selection and identification of a subject for analysis may be predicated on and/or influenced by any number of factors. For example, the subject or subjects may be known or suspected to be afflicted with a disease or condition associated with epigenetic mutations; or who have been or are suspected of having been exposed to an agent that causes, or is suspected of causing, epigenetic mutations; or who have inexplicably inherited a disease or disease condition from a parent for which no DNA sequence mutation has been identified, etc. Subjects whose DNA is analyzed may be of any age, and in any stage of development, so long as cells containing a DNA sequence of interest can be obtained from the subject. For example, the subject may be an adult, an adolescent, a laboratory animal, etc. The cells from which the DNA is obtained may be any suitable cell, including but not limited to gametes, cells from swabs such as buccal swabs, cells sloughed into amniotic fluid, etc.

The genomic features described herein may be used in a variety of applications. For example, the DMRs of the invention can be indicative of having, the risk of having, or the risk of developing infertility or a condition that could lead to pregnancy complications and/or passage of heritable mutations to an infant. Thus the methods of the invention may be used, for example, in an in vitro fertilization clinic setting to test sperm for epimutations and for the potential to pass epigenetic information to offspring. The methods of the invention are also useful for screening potential sperm donors at a donation center. Further applications include screening applicants for health insurance coverage.

The DMRs of the invention can serve as biomarkers to be used e.g. in disease diagnosis and/or to detect environmental exposures to agents or conditions that cause epimutations and/or to monitor therapeutic responsiveness to a medicament or treatment and/or used as prognostic indicators. The detection of epigenetic modifications at the regions described herein (i.e. a positive diagnostic result) will suggest or confirm that the subject has, indeed, likely been exposed to chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy treatments, and treatments suitable for said exposure, or the effects of said exposure, can be instituted. For example, chemotherapy exposure may result in a low sperm count in the male patient leading to infertility. Thus, an appropriate infertility treatment, such as surgical extraction of sperm, may be implemented. In some instances, a male subject may cryopreserve a sperm sample before or shortly after undergoing chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy treatment. In other instances, a male subject may decide to utilize a sperm donor due to the subject's infertility or to prevent the possibility of pregnancy complications and/or the passage of heritable mutations to an infant attributable to the male subject.

Information concerning the type and extent of epigenetic modification in a subject may be used in a variety of decision making processes undertaken by a subject that is tested. For example, depending on the severity of the symptoms caused by an epigenetic modification that is identified, a subject may decide to forego having children or to terminate a pregnancy in order to prevent transmission of the modification to offspring. Diagnostic tests based on the present invention can be included in prenatal testing.

Thus, an aspect of the invention provides a method for the early intervention and treatment of a male subject who is suspected of or who has been exposed to chemotherapy treatment, comprising obtaining at least one genomic DNA sequence from a semen sample from said male subject that has previously undergone chemotherapy treatment; identifying the presence or absence of an epigenetic modification at one or more regions of said at least one genomic DNA, wherein said epigenetic modification comprises at least one DMR listed in Table 6 or Table 10; indicating that said subject is at high risk of infertility or of passing heritable mutations which can lead to pregnancy complications or mutations in an infant if said epigenetic modification is identified to be present in said at least one genomic DNA sequence; and administering an appropriate treatment protocol to said subject determined to be at high risk of infertility or of passing heritable mutations which can lead to pregnancy complications or mutations in an infant.

In contrast, a negative result (no epigenetic modification at the site) suggests that the subject has not been exposed to chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy treatments (or at least that the exposure did not result in damage). If it is known that exposure did occur, then prophylactic screening of a DNA sample from a patient can result in early identification of a risk of disease and lead to early therapeutic intervention. In addition, ongoing monitoring of the extent of epigenetic modification of a site can provide valuable information regarding the outcome of the administration of agents (e.g. drugs or other therapies) which are intended to treat or prevent a condition caused by epimutation, i.e. the therapeutic responsiveness of a patient. Those of skill in the art will recognize that such analyses are generally carried out by comparing the results obtained using an unknown or experimental sample with results obtained a using suitable negative or positive controls, or both.

Subjects whose DNA is analyzed may be suffering from any of a variety of disorders (diseases, conditions, etc.) including but not limited to: various known late or adult onset conditions, such as low sperm production, infertility, abnormalities of sexual organs, kidney abnormalities, prostate disease, immune abnormalities, behavioral effects, etc. In other embodiments, no symptoms are present but screening using the diagnostics is employed to rule out the presence of “silent” epigenetic mutations which could cause disease symptoms in the future, or which could be inherited and cause deleterious effects in offspring.

The DMRs described herein may also be used to screen and identify therapeutic modalities for the treatment of epigenetic mutations due to chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy exposure. Those of skill in the art will recognize that such methods of screening are typically carried out in vitro, e.g. using a DNA sequence that is immobilized in a vessel, or that is present in a cell. However, such tests may also be carried out in model laboratory animals. In one embodiment, candidate agents which reverse epigenetic modification are screened by analyzing the regions. In another embodiment, candidate agents which prevent epigenetic modifications are screened by analyzing the regions. In this way, the epigenetic biomarkers described herein can be used to facilitate, e.g. drug development and clinical trials patient stratification (i.e. pharmacoepigenomics).

Before exemplary embodiments of the present invention are described in greater detail, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range, is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges and are also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the invention.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, representative illustrative methods and materials are now described.

All publications and patents cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference and are incorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited. The citation of any publication is for its disclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as an admission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior invention. Further, the dates of publication provided may be different from the actual publication dates which may need to be independently confirmed.

It is noted that, as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. It is further noted that the claims may be drafted to exclude any optional element. As such, this statement is intended to serve as antecedent basis for use of such exclusive terminology as “solely,” “only” and the like in connection with the recitation of claim elements, or use of a “negative” limitation.

As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading this disclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustrated herein has discrete components and features which may be readily separated from or combined with the features of any of the other several embodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the present invention. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of events recited or in any other order which is logically possible.

The invention is further described by the following non-limiting example which further illustrates the invention, and is not intended, nor should it be interpreted to, limit the scope of the invention.

EXAMPLE. Differential DNA Methylation Regions in Adult Human Sperm Following Adolescent Chemotherapy Abstract

The potential that adolescent chemotherapy can impact the epigenetic programming of the germ line to influence later life adult fertility and promote epigenetic inheritance was investigated. Adult males approximately ten years after pubertal exposure to chemotherapy were compared to adult males with no previous exposure. Sperm were collected to examine differential DNA methylation regions (DMR) between the exposed and control populations. A signature of statistically significant DMRs was identified in the chemotherapy exposed male sperm. The DMRs, termed epimutations, were found in CpG desert regions of primarily 1 kilobase size. Gene associations and correlations to genetic mutations (copy number variation) were also investigated. Observations indicate adolescent chemotherapy exposure can promote epigenetic alterations that persist in later life. This is the first observation in humans that an early life chemical exposure can permanently reprogram the spermatogenic stem cell epigenome. The germline (i.e. sperm) epimutations identified suggest chemotherapy can promote epigenetic inheritance to the next generation.

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies have demonstrated transient early life toxicant exposures can influence later life health effects and epigenetic reprogramming of the germline in animal models [6-8]. Epigenetics is defined as “molecular factors or processes around DNA that regulate genome activity independent of DNA sequence and are mitotically stable” [6,9]. The currently known epigenetic mechanisms include DNA methylation, histone modifications, selected non-coding RNA and chromatin structure [6]. Although the vast majority of environmental factors can not alter DNA sequence, most have the ability to alter epigenetic programming during development [6,9]. Early developmental exposures have been shown to alter the epigenetic programming of cells associated with a number of adult onset diseases [6,9-11]. Environmentally-induced DNA methylation changes in Sertoli or granulosa cells have been shown to associate with testis and ovarian disease in the adult [12,13]. Environmental epigenetics provides a molecular mechanism for the developmental origins of disease [9]. In the event the altered epigenetic programming occurs in the germline (sperm or egg), the altered epigenetics (e.g. epimutations) have the potential to be transmitted between generations [6-8,14]. A number of studies have demonstrated that environmental factors (e.g. toxicants and nutrients) following fetal exposure can alter the germline epigenome (e.g. DNA methylation) to then transmit epimutations to subsequent generations [8,14].

When the germline transmission of epigenetic information occurs between multiple generations in the absence of continuous exposure this is considered to be environmentally-induced epigenetic transgenerational inheritance [6,7]. This form of non-genetic inheritance is due to the germline transmission of epigenetic information. A number of studies have shown that numerous environmental toxicants such as fungicides [7], plastics [15], pesticides [7] and hydrocarbons [16] can promote the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of disease [6]. The transgenerational disease observed includes testis, ovary, prostate, mammary, kidney and brain disease [17,18]. The majority of these transgenerational studies have observed correlations between the phenotypes and differential DNA methylation alterations in the sperm [14]. Therefore, early life environmental exposures can influence the epigenetic programming of the sperm and have the ability to promote epigenetic inheritance to subsequent generations.

The generational impact of chemotherapy has not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, the current study was designed to investigate the actions of chemotherapy on pubertal males that potentially promote an alteration in epigenetic programming that will result in adult male sperm having epimutations. This requires the spermatogonial stem cell population in the testis to be affected permanently to produce later life effects on the sperm epigenome. Osteosarcoma is one of the most common cancers in this population treated with agents such as cisplatin and ifosfamide. This population provides a useful model to investigate potential chemotherapy induced effects on later life reproductive health. Previous studies have demonstrated altered DNA methylation profiles in control versus infertile human male sperm [19]. The presence of sperm epimutations due to adolescent chemotherapy also would suggest for the first time the potential for epigenetic inheritance to the next generation.

Results

Characteristics of the chemotherapy-exposed patients and controls including age of semen collection, specific chemotherapy and sperm quality are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The age of exposure ranged 14 to 20 years and the chemotherapy was cisplatin with some also including ifosfamide. Upon collection the sperm numbers ranged from 7 to 518 million total with the control population mean of 280 million total per individual and the chemotherapy-exposed mean of 77.8 million total per individual. Therefore, there was a general reduction in sperm number in the chemotherapy-exposed population, as previously described [2,3].

TABLE 1 Patient Information. Information for the chemotherapy treated and control individuals with treatment age, sperm collection age, chemotherapy used and total sperm number presented. Collection Sperm # ID # Chemotherapy Age (yr) (Total Millions) Pool # CIS-051 N/A 40 240.5 1 CIS-056 N/A 38 303.6 1 CIS-081 N/A 32 44.2 1 CIS-063 N/A 33 875 2 CIS-087 N/A 39 262 2 CIS-073 N/A 37 280.4 2 CIS-088 N/A 33 21 3 CIS-072 N/A 40 181.2 3 CIS-074 N/A 37 518 3 B008-249 Cisplatin/Ifosfamide 27 ND* 4 CIS-002 Cisplatin 24 100.2 4 CIS-025 Cisplatin 26 170.5 4 CIS-028 Cisplatin 28 178 5 CIS-034 Cisplatin 24 7.34 5 CIS-043 Cisplatin/Ifosfamide 30 42 5 CIS-033 Cisplatin 25 21 6 CIS-044 Cisplatin 19 49 6 CIS-048 Cisplatin 24 88 6 *ND indicates not determined

TABLE 2 Patient Information. Average and range for the chemotherapy treated patients and controls presented for age at collection, age at treatment, cisplatin dose (milligrams/meter squared), ifosfamide dose and seminal fluid volume. Note that one patient that got 120 mg/m2 dose of cisplatin also got 800 mg/m2 of carboplatin which is in the same class of drugs as cisplatin. The B006 chemotherapy case sperm count was not determined (ND). Chemotherapy Cases Controls Average (Mean) Age at sample 24.78 36.01 Age Range at Sample 19.12 to 29.86 27.5 to 44.4 Average (Mean) Age at Treatment 16.3 NA Age Range at Treatment 14.47 to 19.63 NA Average Cisplatin Dose mg/m² 389.33 mg/m² NA Cisplatin Dose Range mg/m² 120* mg/m² to 480 mg/m² NA Average ifosfamide Dose mg/m² 30.5 mg/m² NA Range Ifosfamide Dose mg/m² 30.5 mg/m² to 30.5 mg/m² NA Seminal Fluid Volume—Average 2.23 ml 2.41 ml Seminal Fluid Volume—Range 0.6 to 5.0 0.3 to 7.5 # individuals with Normal SF parameters 6 out of 9 6 out of 3 NA indicates not applicable

DNA from the semen samples was isolated and equal amounts of DNA from 3 individuals pooled to generate three different pools of control (no previous chemotherapy) and three different pools of adolescent chemotherapy exposed cancer survivors labeled human sperm pools (HS #) #1 through #6. The pooled DNA was immunoprecipitated with 5 methyl cytosine monoclonal antibody for a methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP). The MeDIP DNA was used to generate libraries and bar coded (index primers) separately for analysis by next generation sequencing (MeDIPSeq).

A high read number and alignment proportion was obtained (Table 3). The differential DNA methylation regions (DMRs) were identified using the MEDIPS R package as outlined in the Methods. The DMRs include single sites as well as multiple sites. The DMRs for all sites and multiple sites are shown for a variety of statistical pvalue thresholds in Table 4. The p<10⁻⁴ was selected for further analysis and due to the potential for false positives in single sites the multiple site p<10⁻⁴ was used for subsequent analysis and discussion. The more variable single sites are likely important, but the more stringently selected multiple site DMRs are used to convey the general observations. Therefore, the 2831 single sites and 135 multiple sites are discussed. The distribution of the DMR according to number of multiple sites is presented in Table 5 and the list of DMRs is shown in Table 6. The majority were single site DMRs with the bulk of the multiple site DMR having two sites. Interestingly, one DMR (DMR3:198096901) had 73 multiple windows on chromosome 3, none of which were associated with a known gene (Table 6). Observations demonstrate the adolescent chemotherapy exposure induced reproducible human sperm epimutations.

TABLE 3 DMR number and characteristics. The number of reads present for each sample pool (HS #) and overall alignment rate calculated by bowtie2. Read number and alignment HS1 HS2 HS3 HS4 HS5 HS6 Read Number 127916479 116715381 60181475 67042941 78944306 126030851 Alignment % 97.90 97.77 97.77 97.92 96.19 97.19

TABLE 4 DMR number and characteristics. The number of DMRs found using different edgeR p-value cutoff thresholds. DMR number p-value Total DMR Multiple Site DMR 0.001 20526 1551 1.00E−04 2831 135 1 00E−05 463 24 1.00E−06 76 6 1.00E−07 15 2

TABLE 5 DMR number and characteristics. The number of DMR with associated specific number of significant sites at a p-value threshold of <10⁻⁴. Site number associated with DMR Number of Significant Sites 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 73 Number of DMR 2696 110 13 5 4 1 1 1

TABLE 6 Human sperm chemotherapy-associated DMR list for multiple site DMR at p < 10⁻⁴. The DMR name, chromosomal location, start site, length in base pair (bp), CpG density (CpG/100 bp), and size associated is listed. The absence (not applicable, NA) of one or more gene listed under “Gene Association” indicates an intergenic DMR location. Multiple Site DMR List CpG Length min P CpG Density Gene DMR Name Chr Start (bp) Windows Value # (#/100 bp) Association DMR1:12173801 1 12173801 1400 2 4.08E−05 27 1.9 TNFRSF1B DMR1:14192301 1 14192301 900 2 5.38E−05 6 0.6 DMR1:104846301 1 104846301 2500 2 5.56E−05 26 1 DMR1:154878801 1 154878801 700 2 1.08E−05 22 3.1 DMR1:175491101 1 175491101 3200 2 1.49E−05 47 1.4 TNR DMR1:215393901 1 215393901 500 2 6.42E−05 26 5.2 RP11-199H2.2 DMR1:224010101 1 224010101 4700 2 9.49E−06 108 2.2 RP11-504P24.3 DMR1:238863501 1 238863501 2100 2 1.33E−07 8 0.3 DMR2:2189101 2 2189101 1100 4 6.30E−07 35 3.1 MYT1L DMR2:35752601 2 35752601 4600 2 8.10E−06 24 0.5 DMR2:95550301 2 95550301 1300 2 3.14E−06 29 2.2 DMR2:144492201 2 144492201 1400 2 1.52E−06 11 0.7 ZEB2 DMR2:238198201 2 238198201 1100 2 3.28E−06 8 0.7 ILKAP DMR3:44495901 3 44495901 1400 2 4.11E−05 21 1.5 DMR3:55470001 3 55470001 1000 2 7.95E−07 35 3.5 WNT5A DMR3:113198301 3 113198301 200 2 4.33E−05 2 1 DMR3:198096901 3 198096901 10900 73 9.27E−30 397 3.6 DMR4:31437301 4 31437301 2600 2 9.28E−06 51 1.9 DMR4:146592201 4 146592201 400 2 1.71E−05 2 0.5 DMR4:186476501 4 186476501 1900 2 8.09E−06 17 0.8 F11-AS1; RP11-215A19.2 DMR4:188443001 4 188443001 6600 2 1.70E−06 99 1.5 LINC01060 DMR5:164501 5 164501 2200 3 8.79E−06 142 6.4 PLEKHG4B DMR5:561701 5 561701 3900 3 1.46E−07 396 10 DMR5:3879101 5 3879101 2700 2 6.99E−05 32 1.1 DMR5:4311001 5 4311001 700 3 9.20E−06 19 2.7 DMR5:9122501 5 9122501 700 2 1.21E−05 27 3.8 SEMA5A DMR5:23303701 5 23303701 1700 2 7.07E−05 44 2.5 CTD-2272G21.2 DMR5:30068101 5 30068101 2900 2 1.28E−07 38 1.3 DMR5:55530601 5 55530601 500 2 2.89E−05 28 5.6 PPAP2A; RNF138P1 DMR5:57549501 5 57549501 1400 2 1.42E−05 15 1 DMR5:77912901 5 77912901 1300 2 3.39E−05 24 1.8 DMR5:134314001 5 134314001 900 2 3.23E−05 10 1.1 CTD-2410N18.4 CDKL3 DMR5:151531101 5 151531101 1000 3 2.76E−06 44 4.4 FAT2 DMR5:162993101 5 162993101 800 2 1.10E−06 10 1.2 DMR6:1514701 6 1514701 1100 2 1.70E−05 38 3.4 RP11-157J24.1 DMR6:5092901 6 5092901 300 2 4.79E−05 2 0.6 DMR6:5792601 6 5792601 2400 2 1.74E−05 23 0.9 DMR6:31326001 6 31326001 1000 2 3.38E−05 17 1.7 HLA-C DMR6:31814701 6 31814701 3700 3 1.17E−05 217 5.8 HSPA1L; HSPA1A DMR6:31828001 6 31828001 1600 2 2.62E−05 130 8.1 HSPA1B DMR6:58560701 6 58560701 2100 2 4.49E−06 37 1.7 DMR6:58593201 6 58593201 3200 2 6.04E−09 60 1.8 DMR6:59033701 6 59033701 600 2 3.44E−11 13 2.1 DMR6:59163101 6 59163101 1600 2 2.73E−06 34 2.1 DMR6:59274801 6 59274801 3200 2 1.30E−07 57 1.7 DMR6:59342901 6 59342901 1500 4 3.08E−06 36 2.4 DMR6:59565501 6 59565501 1000 2 5.85E−06 12 1.2 DMR6:59688201 6 59688201 200 2 7.98E−08 5 2.5 DMR6:116616001 6 116616001 300 2 3.05E−06 10 3.3 DMR6:167702601 6 167702601 2900 2 4.71E−05 70 2.4 DMR7:49018601 7 49018601 700 3 9.21E−07 14 2 DMR7:77441801 7 77441801 400 2 9.98E−07 6 1.5 DMR7:87205701 7 87205701 2300 2 3.39E−05 37 1.6 TMEM243 DMR7:101239401 7 101239401 1600 2 6.96E−06 66 4.1 FIS1 DMR7:109351301 7 109351301 400 2 1.94E−05 9 2.2 DMR7:158556901 7 158556901 1100 2 5.39E−06 65 5.9 PTPRN2 DMR8:7556101 8 7556101 500 2 8.30E−06 25 5 DMR8:27797501 8 27797501 500 2 5.39E−05 3 0.6 ESCO2 DMR8:44360401 8 44360401 300 2 3.67E−05 6 2 DMR8:45815901 8 45815901 300 2 9.64E−09 7 2.3 DMR8:45927501 8 45927501 6800 2 3.41E−06 122 1.7 DMR8:99694501 8 99694501 3100 3 5.63E−06 68 2.1 VPS13B; AC018442.1 DMR8:126213701 8 126213701 300 2 1.09E−05 2 0.6 DMR8:142938801 8 142938801 1400 2 3.03E−05 55 3.9 DMR9:28333101 9 28333101 1100 2 3.09E−06 8 0.7 LINGO2 DMR9:40951901 9 40951901 500 2 4.31E−05 16 3.2 DMR9:41424201 9 41424201 600 2 7.72E−07 5 0.8 DMR9:95044801 9 95044801 1100 2 5.16E−07 50 4.5 NPEPO DMR9:98644001 9 98644001 1100 2 1.78E−05 12 1 GABBR2 DMR10:1197701 10 1197701 3100 8 1.51E−09 70 2.2 ADARB2 DMR10:15012201 10 15012201 1700 2 8.22E−05 42 2.4 DMR10:30846501 10 30846501 2900 2 6.76E−05 40 1.3 ZNF438 DMR10:32731701 10 32731701 400 2 3.00E−05 14 3.5 CCDC7 DMR10:73117601 10 73117601 300 2 1.77E−05 1 0.3 NUDT13 DMR10:90990401 10 90990401 400 2 8.86E−05 4 1 DMR10:123691901 10 123691901 800 2 1.57E−05 4 0.5 GPR26 DMR10:127538001 10 127538001 1800 2 2.69E−05 28 1.5 DMR10:129343401 10 129343401 2100 3 6.38E−06 49 2.3 DMR10:130440901 10 130440901 1100 2 2.10E−05 29 2.6 RP11-540N6.1 DMR11:484301 11 484301 4300 2 2.10E−06 312 7.2 PTDSS2 DMR11:47036401 11 47036401 1700 2 8.45E−06 33 1.9 C11orf49 DMR11:95437501 11 95437501 400 2 1.72E−05 8 2 DMR12:81062701 12 81062701 400 2 4.28E−07 2 0.5 ACSS3 DMR12:95948901 12 95948901 300 2 1.85E−05 3 1 AMDHD1 DMR12:130657401 12 130657401 2600 2 1.48E−05 80 3 RP11-662M24.2 DMR13:63935201 13 63935201 300 2 8.12E−05 3 1 DMR13:98815001 13 98815001 3000 2 6.61E−05 41 1.3 DOCK9 DMR13:104088001 13 104088001 500 2 2.27E−07 7 1.4 DMR14:19433401 14 19433401 3600 3 2.54E−06 137 3.8 POTEG DMR14:38737701 14 38737701 300 2 1.02E−06 5 1.6 DMR14:46935601 14 46935601 300 2 5.76E−06 2 0.6 MDGA2 DMR14:62802301 14 62802301 500 2 1.46E−07 8 1.6 KCNH5 DMR15:20756701 15 20756701 2500 2 4.04E−05 46 1.8 DMR15:21172601 15 21172601 3800 4 4.00E−07 119 3.1 DMR15:21325001 15 21325001 5800 2 1.57E−06 135 2.3 RP11-32B5.7; RP11-275E15.2 DMR15:73775201 15 73775201 300 2 3.11E−06 6 2 DMR15:88274701 15 88274701 300 2 7.18E−05 4 1.3 DMR15:88930701 15 88930701 400 3 9.67E−09 1 0.2 DMR16:2603101 16 2603101 1600 5 6.45E−07 77 4.8 AC141586.5; PDPK1 DMR16:14910901 16 14910901 2800 5 9.51E−06 217 7.7 MIR3180-1; NPIPA3 DMR16:61463701 16 61463701 1200 2 2.76E−06 2 0.1 DMR16:85972901 16 85972901 1200 2 3.25E−05 95 7.9 DMR17:121701 17 121701 6300 2 1.17E−05 115 1.8 DMR17:8836901 17 8836901 2500 2 3.82E−06 53 2.1 PIK3R6 DMR17:46382701 17 46382701 1600 2 1.94E−05 14 0.8 NSFP1 DMR17:68151901 17 68151901 900 2 4.81E−05 30 3.3 LRRC37A16P DMR18:8634901 18 8634901 200 2 1.21E−05 1 0.5 RAB12 DMR18:14484901 18 14484901 5100 2 1.18E−05 181 3.5 GRAMD4P7; CXADRP3 DMR18:46969701 18 46969701 200 2 2.87E−05 18 9 KATNAL2; TCEB3CL DMR18:59752001 18 59752001 300 2 1.46E−06 3 1 DMR18:65609101 18 65609101 600 2 2.08E−05 19 3.1 RP11-775G23.1 DMR18:70848101 18 70848101 900 2 1.62E−05 13 1.4 DMR18:76003301 18 76003301 2800 2 2.92E−07 39 1.3 DMR19:756801 19 756801 1600 2 3.50E−06 76 4.7 MISP DMR19:37842601 19 37842601 2500 2 1.14E−05 36 1.4 AC016582.2 DMR19:43206901 19 43206901 400 2 2.88E−06 16 4 PSG4 DMR19:48181401 19 48181401 1600 2 7.54E−06 51 3.1 CARD8; ZNF114; C19 DMR19:52916701 19 52916701 4200 5 3.66E−10 101 2.4 ZNF888 DMR19:54772001 19 54772001 6000 4 8.20E−06 62 1 KIR2DL1; KIR3DL1: CTB DMR20:2311001 20 2311001 800 2 7.56E−06 7 0.8 TGM3 DMR20:61964901 20 61964901 1500 2 8.95E−08 82 5.4 TAF4 DMR20:64131901 20 64131901 2700 3 1.68E−08 15 0.5 DMR21:7916001 21 7916001 26500 5 1.05E−06 710 2.6 DMR21:10652801 21 10652801 38000 3 9.10E−06 829 2.1 DMR21:42955701 21 42955701 200 2 2.98E−05 12 6 DMR21:44158201 21 44158201 1800 2 1.96E−05 51 2.8 AP001055.6 DMR22:11248401 22 11248401 8500 2 1.87E−05 383 4.5 5_8S_rRNA; AC137488.1 DMR22:32203601 22 32203601 3800 2 3.66E−06 159 4.1 RP1-90G24.10 DMR22:48701801 22 48701801 3100 2 3.52E−05 92 2.9 FAM19A5 DMRX:666401 X 666401 1000 2 1.66E−05 18 1.8 DMRX:1041801 X 1041801 9200 4 1.75E−06 164 1.7 DMRX:1235401 X 1235401 1100 2 1.72E−05 98 8.9 DMRX:3865201 X 3865201 3100 2 8.41E−05 83 2.6 RP11-706O15.3 DMRX:115191101 X 115191101 1500 6 5.42E−07 128 8.5 LRCH2; RBMXL3 DMRY:11559901 Y 11559901 33000 3 9.16E−06 910 2.7

The chromosomal location of the sperm DMRs/epimutations is presented in FIG. 1. The DMRs were present on all chromosomes with a number of statistically over-represented clusters of DMRs indicated with the black box below the line. This epimutation signature was reproducible between the different human sperm pools. As a comparison the chromosomal plot of the single site DMRs is presented in FIG. 2. The single site DMR density was greater, but interestingly several regions in chromosome 1, 9, 13, 14, 15 were void of DMRs. In addition a larger number of DMR clusters were observed in all chromosomes (FIG. 2). The list of p<10⁴ multiple site DMR is presented in Table 6. The current study demonstrates a signature of statistically significant epimutations that are present in the adolescent chemotherapy-exposure population. There may also be differential effects between different chemotherapies and periods of developmental exposure.

A genomic feature identified in all previously detected environmentally induced epimutations was a region of low density CpG content termed a CpG desert [20]. Analysis of the CpG content of the chemotherapy-associated human sperm epimutations identified between 1-3 CpG per 100 bp density with only one DMR having a greater than 10 CpG/100 bp (FIG. 3A and Table 6). Therefore, a CpG desert was a genomic feature of the chemotherapy-associated sperm DMRs. The epimutations were predominantly 1 kb in size with only a few greater than 6 kb in size (FIG. 3B and Table 6). Therefore, the genomic features of the human sperm epimutations identified were similar to those previously identified in other species [20].

The potential that molecular variation within each of the study populations may contribute to the DMR identified was investigated. Analysis of the internal population variation in the unexposed and exposed populations separately identified 114 and 50 single site DMR respectively. The three individual pools of each population were compared between each other to identify the internal population variation in DMR. The majority of internal population variation is anticipated to be hypervariable DMR, termed metastable epialleles [21], and none of these internal population DMR overlapped with the exposed versus unexposed DMR dataset. Therefore, internal population variation does not account for the chemotherapy associated DMR identified in sperm.

Analysis of a genetic mutation (copy number variation, CNV) was performed to determine the genetic CNV variation in the exposed versus unexposed comparison. Only 3 CNV were detected in the comparison. Although variable CNV were detected within the different pools of the populations, Table 7, comparison of the exposed versus unexposed populations identified minimal alterations present in all pool comparisons. None of the CNV were associated or overlapped with the DMR identified. Therefore, genetic CNV variation does not appear to be a cause for the epigenetic differences observed.

TABLE 7 CNV analysis summary for the human sperm. The nonexposed (HS1, HS2, HS3) control and chemotherapy exposed (HS4, HS5, HS6) population pools are listed. Overlapping CNV between control and chemotherapy exposed population: 3 CNV. CNV analysis summary for the human sperm Read Mapping Summary: HS1 HS2 HS3 HS4 HS5 HS6 Read Number 32352587 27963740 32524539 22628164 30272531 36013163 Overall Alignment Rate 97.41% 78.89% 96.76% 93.03% 86.87% 94.47% Overall CNV Numbers: 1 10 11 12 13 14 16 2 20 21 3 4 HS1 7 1 14 4 3 7 2 4 4 5 7 8 HS2 84 24 57 61 44 44 35 68 20 23 61 30 HS3 110 48 35 22 26 34 41 77 24 18 65 50 HS4 3 1 1 0 2 0 5 0 3 3 1 1 HS5 5 3 3 2 0 2 0 1 4 1 2 1 HS6 10 4 15 6 3 7 12 5 5 5 6 8 5 6 7 8 9 X 15 18 19 22 Y 17 HS1 5 3 8 5 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 HS2 54 34 57 38 44 10 36 14 2 25 8 0 HS3 53 39 43 46 21 14 17 23 33 21 0 43 HS4 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 12 1 0 4 HS5 1 0 1 1 4 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 HS6 7 3 13 6 9 1 0 0 0 2 0 4 The number of reads present for each sample and the overall alignment rate calculated by bowtie2. The number of CNV found, separated by sample and chromosome.

The gene associations with the DMRs are listed in Table 8 and the complete list with information in Tables 6 and 9. Approximately 50% of the DMRs had associations with genes indicating half the epimutations are intergenic and distal from genes. Previously some DMRs have been suggested to potentially act as epigenetic control regions and distally regulate expression through ncRNA mechanisms for 2-5 Mbase regions [22]. The genes associated with chemotherapy-associated DMRs are present in numerous gene classifications with no major category being overrepresented (Tables 8 and 9). The number of DMR associated with specific gene classification categories are presented in FIG. 4. The DMR associated genes were analyzed for correlated known gene pathways. No specific pathway or cellular process was found to have more than four associated genes. These results suggest that the chemotherapy induced sperm DMR can alter genome activity.

TABLE 8 DMR associated gene list and categories. The specific DMR, associated gene symbol and classification category are presented. Some DMR are associated with multiple genes which are listed. DMR associated genes with unknown classification only are not listed. DMR Name Gene Association Category DMR2:238198201 ILKAP Signaling DMR5:164501 PLEKHG4B Signaling DMR5:55530601 PPAP2A Signaling RNF138P1 Unknown DMR5:9122501 SEMA5A Signaling DMR7:158556901 PTPRN2 Signaling DMR8:99694501 VPS13B Signaling AC018442.1 Unknown DMR13:98815001 DOCK9 Signaling DMR16:2603101 PDPK1 Signaling AC141586.5 Unknown DMR17:8836901 PIK3R6 Signaling DMR18:8634901 RAB12 Signaling DMR10:73117601 NUDT13 Metabolism DMR11:484301 PTDSS2 Metabolism DMR12:81062701 ACSS3 Metabolism DMR12:95948901 AMDHD1 Metabolism DMR14:46935601 MDGA2 Metabolism DMR20:2311001 TGM3 Metabolism DMR2:2189101 MYT1L Transcription DMR2:144492201 ZEB2 Transcription DMR10:30846501 ZNF438 Transcription DMR10:32731701 CCDC7 Transcription DMR19:52916701 ZNF888 Transcription DMR20:61964901 TAF4 Transcription DMR4:186476501 F11-AS1 Epigenetic RP11-215A19.2 Unknown DMR4:188443001 LINC01060 Epigenetic DMR8:27797501 ESCO2 Epigenetic DMR16:14910901 MIR3180-1 Epigenetic NPIPA3 Unknown RP11-958N24.1 Unknown NPIPA1 Unknown DMR1:1754911O1 TNR ECM DMR5:151531101 FAT2 ECM DMR9:28333101 LINGO2 ECM DMR19:43206901 PSG4 ECM DMR1:121738O1 TNFRSF1B Receptor DMR9:98644001 GABBR2 Receptor DMR10:123691901 GPR26 Receptor DMR6:31814701 HSPA1L Protein HSPA1A Binding Protein Binding DMR6:31828001 HSPA1B Protein Binding DMR5:134314001 CDKL3 Cell Cycle CTD-2410N18.4 Unknown DMR19:756801 MISP Cell Cycle DMR18:46969701 KATNAL2 Cytoskeleton TCEB3CL Transcription DMRX:115191101 LRCH2 Cytoskeleton RBMXL3 Translation DMR6:31326001 HLA-C Immune DMR19:54772001 KIR2DL1 Immune KIR3DL1 Immune CTB-61M7.1 Unknown DMR7:87205701 TMEM243 Mitochondria DMR7:101239401 FIS1 Mitochondria DMR10:1197701 ADARB2 Translation DMR22:11248401 5_8S_rRNA Translation AC137488.1 Unknown DMR19:48181401 CARD8 Apoptosis ZNF114 Transcription C19orf68 Unknown DMR3:55470001 WNT5A Development DMR22:48701801 FAM19A5 Growth Factor DMR12:130657401 RIMBP2 Misc. RP11-662M24.2 Unknown RP11-662M24.1 Unknown DMR9:95044801 NPEPO Proteolysis DMR14:62802301 KCNH5 Transport

TABLE 9 Human sperm chemotherapy-associated DMR associated genes. The DMR name, gene symbol, chromosome location start and end position, Ensembl number, gene description and classification category are presented. Multiple Site DMR Associated Genes start end Classification DMR Name Gene Symbol Chr position position Ensembl # Gene Description Category DMR1:12173801 TNFRSF1B 1 12167003 12209228 ENSG00000028137 tumor necrosis Receptor factor receptor superfamily - member 1B DMR1:175491101 TNR 1 175315194 175743770 ENSG00000116147 tenascin R ECM DMR1:215393901 RP11- 1 215393646 215394418 ENSG00000282265 NA Unknown 199H2.2 DMR1:224010101 RP11- 1 223992743 224010612 ENSG00000185495 NA Unknown 504P24.3 DMR2:2189101 MYT1L 2 1789113 2331260 ENSG00000186487 myelin Transcription transcription factor 1-like DMR2:144492201 ZEB2 2 144384081 144524583 ENSG00000169554 zinc finger E-box Transcription binding homeobox 2 DMR2:238198201 ILKAP 2 238170401 238203729 ENSG00000132323 integrin-linked Signaling kinase-associated serine/threonine phosphatase DMR3:55470001 WNT5A 3 55465715 55490539 ENSG00000114251 wingless-type Development MMTV integration site family - member 5A DMR4:186476501 F11-AS1 4 186286094 186500997 ENSG00000251165 F11 antisense Epigenetic RNA 1 DMR4:186476501 RP11- 4 186426546 186555328 ENSG00000272297 Uncharacterized Unknown 215A19.2 protein DMR4:188443001 LINC01060 4 188400736 188681051 ENSG00000249378 long intergenic Epigenetic non-protein coding RNA 1060 DMR5:164501 PLEKHG4B 5 140258 189970 ENSG00000153404 pleckstrin Signaling homology domain containing - family G (with RhoGef domain) member 4B DMR5:9122501 SEMA5A 5 9035026 9546075 ENSG00000112902 sema domain - Signaling seven thrombospondin repeats (type 1 and type 1-like) - transmembrane domain (TM) DMR5:23303701 CTD- 5 23303565 23305143 ENSG00000250332 NA Unknown 2272G21.2 DMR5:55530601 PPAP2A 5 55424854 55535050 ENSG00000067113 phosphatidic acid Signaling phosphatase type 2A DMR5:55530601 RNF138P1 5 55530156 55530701 ENSG00000250853 ring finger protein Unknown 138 - E3 ubiquitin protein ligase pseudogene 1 DMR5:134314001 CTD- 5 134205614 134371044 ENSG00000273345 NA Unknown 2410N18.4 DMR5:134314001 CDKL3 5 134286350 134371047 ENSG00000006837 cyclin-dependent Cell Cycle kinase-like 3 DMR5:151531101 FAT2 5 151504093 151568944 ENSG00000086570 FAT atypical ECM cadherin 2 DMR6:1514701 RP11- 6 1513698 1515289 ENSG00000218027 NA Unknown 157J24.1 DMR6:31326001 HLA-C 6 31268749 31357158 ENSG00000204525 major Immune histocompatibility complex - class I - C DMR6:31814701 HSPA1L 6 31809619 31815065 ENSG00000204390 heat shock 70 kDa Protein Binding protein 1-like DMR6:31814701 HSPA1A 6 31815464 31817946 ENSG00000204389 heat shock 70 kDa Protein Binding protein 1A DMR6:31828001 HSPA1B 6 31827735 31830255 ENSG00000204388 heat shock 70 kDa Protein Binding protein 1B DMR7:87205701 TMEM243 7 87196160 87220587 ENSG00000135185 transmembrane Mitochondria protein 243 - mitochondrial DMR7:101239401 FIS1 7 101239458 101252316 ENSG00000214253 fission 1 Mitochondria (mitochondrial outer membrane) homolog (S. cerevisiae) DMR7:158556901 PTPRN2 7 157539056 158587788 ENSG00000155093 protein tyrosine Signaling phosphatase - receptor type - N polypeptide 2 DMR8:27797501 ESCO2 8 27771949 27812640 ENSG00000171320 establishment of Epigenetic sister chromatid cohesion N- acetyltransferase 2 DMR8:99694501 VPS13B 8 99013266 99877580 ENSG00000132549 vacuolar protein Signaling sorting 13 homolog B (yeast) DMR8:99694501 AC018442.1 8 99695957 99698017 ENSG00000235683 NA Unknown DMR9:28333101 LINGO2 9 27948078 28670286 ENSG00000174482 leucine rich repeat ECM and Ig domain containing 2 DMR9:95044801 NPEPO 9 94726701 95087218 ENSG00000148120 chromosome 9 Proteolysis open reading frame 3 DMR9:98644001 GABBR2 9 98288109 98709197 ENSG00000136928 gamma- Receptor aminobutyric acid (GABA) B receptor - 2 DMR10:1197701 ADARB2 10 1177318 1737476 ENSG00000185736 adenosine Translation deaminase - RNA- specific - B2 (non- functional) DMR10:30846501 ZNF438 10 30820207 31031937 ENSG00000183621 zinc finger protein Transcription 438 DMR10:32731701 CCDC7 10 32567723 32882874 ENSG00000150076 coiled-coil domain Transcription containing 7 DMR10:73117601 NUDT13 10 73110375 73131828 ENSG00000166321 nudix (nucleoside Metabolism diphosphate linked moiety X)-type motif 13 DMR10:123691901 GPR26 10 123666355 123694607 ENSG00000154478 G protein-coupled Receptor receptor 26 DMR10:130440901 RP11- 10 130439067 130483154 ENSG00000236303 NA Unknown 540N6.1 DMR11:484301 PTDSS2 11 448268 491399 ENSG00000174915 phosphatidylserine Metabolism synthase 2 DMR11:47036401 C11orf49 11 46936689 47164385 ENSG00000149179 chromosome 11 Unknown open reading frame 49 DMR12:81062701 ACSS3 12 80936414 81261205 ENSG00000111058 acyl-CoA Metabolism synthetase short- chain family member 3 DMR12:95948901 AMDHD1 12 95943293 95968716 ENSG00000139344 amidohydrolase Metabolism domain containing 1 DMR12:130657401 RP11- 12 130628316 130716281 ENSG00000256725 NA Unknown 662M24.2 DMR12:130657401 RIMBP2 12 130396137 130716281 ENSG00000060709 RIMS binding Misc. protein 2 DMR12:130657401 RP11- 12 130651371 130669233 ENSG00000256343 NA Unknown 662M24.1 DMR13:98815001 DOCK9 13 98793487 99086625 ENSG00000088387 dedicator of Signaling cytokinesis 9 DMR14:19433401 POTEG 14 19402486 19434341 ENSG00000187537 POTE ankyrin Unknown domain family - member G DMR14:46935601 MDGA2 14 46839629 47674954 ENSG00000139915 MAM domain Metabolism containing glycosylphosphati- dylinositol anchor 2 DMR14:62802301 KCNH5 14 62699454 63102037 ENSG00000140015 potassium channel - Transport voltage gated eag related subfamily H - member 5 DMR15:21325001 RP11-32B5.7 15 21298233 21325241 ENSG00000247765 NA Unknown DMR15:21325001 RP11- 15 21328380 21343881 ENSG00000280881 NA Unknown 275E15.2 DMR16:2603101 AC141586.5 16 2603350 2630494 ENSG00000215154 NA Unknown DMR16:2603101 PDPK1 16 2537964 2603188 ENSG00000140992 3- Signaling phosphoinositide dependent protein kinase 1 DMR16:14910901 MIR3180-1 16 14911220 14911313 ENSG00000265537 microRNA 3180-1 Epigenetic DMR16:14910901 NPIPA3 16 14708944 14952073 ENSG00000224712 nuclear pore Unknown complex interacting protein family - member A3 DMR16:14910901 RP11- 16 14911551 14935708 ENSG00000183458 NA Unknown 958N24.1 DMR16:14910901 NPIPA1 16 14750813 14952060 ENSG00000183426 nuclear pore Unknown complex interacting protein family - member A1 DMR17:8836901 PIK3R6 17 8802723 8867677 ENSG00000276231 phosphoinositide- Signaling 3-kinase - regulatory subunit 6 DMR17:46382701 NSFP1 17 46372855 46487141 ENSG00000260075 N-ethylmaleimide- Unknown sensitive factor pseudogene 1 DMR17:68151901 LRRC37A16P 17 68125777 68152468 ENSG00000267023 leucine rich repeat Unknown containing 37 - member A16 - pseudogene DMR17:68151901 RP11- 17 68152776 68159043 ENSG00000267708 NA Unknown 147L13.7 DMR18:8634901 RAB12 18 8609445 8639381 ENSG00000206418 RAB12 - member Signaling RAS oncogene family DMR18:14484901 GRAMD4P7 18 14485806 14487501 ENSG00000266242 GRAM domain Unknown containing 4 pseudogene 7 DMR18:14484901 CXADRP3 18 14477955 14499278 ENSG00000265766 coxsackie virus Unknown and adenovirus receptor pseudogene 3 DMR18:46969701 KATNAL2 18 46917492 47102243 ENSG00000167216 katanin p60 Cytoskeleton subunit A-like 2 DMR18:46969701 TCEB3CL 18 46968695 47029842 ENSG00000275553 transcription Transcription elongation factor B polypeptide 3C- like DMR18:65609101 RP11- 18 65606090 65652053 ENSG00000265217 NA Unknown 775G23.1 DMR19:756801 MISP 19 751126 764318 ENSG00000099812 mitotic spindle Cell Cycle positioning DMR19:37842601 AC016582.2 19 37823722 37855215 ENSG00000225868 NA Unknown DMR19:43206901 PSG4 19 43192702 43207299 ENSG00000243137 pregnancy specific ECM beta-1- glycoprotein 4 DMR19:48181401 CARD8 19 48180770 48255946 ENSG00000105483 caspase Apoptosis recruitment domain family - member 8 DMR19:48181401 ZNF114 19 48172318 48287608 ENSG00000178150 zinc finger protein Transcription 114 DMR19:48181401 C19orf68 19 48170692 48197620 ENSG00000185453 chromosome 19 Unknown open reading frame 68 DMR19:52916701 ZNF888 19 52915196 52923470 ENSG00000213793 zinc finger protein Transcription 888 DMR19:54772001 KIR2DL1 19 54769811 54784322 ENSG00000125498 killer cell Immune immunoglobulin- like receptor - two domains - long cytoplasmic tail - 1 DMR19:54772001 KIR3DL1 19 54724497 54867215 ENSG00000167633 killer cell Immune immunoglobulin- like receptor - three domains - long cytoplasmic tail - 1 DMR19:54772001 CTB-61M7.1 19 54724496 54798285 ENSG00000215765 Unknown DMR20:2311001 TGM3 20 2296001 2341078 ENSG00000125780 transglutaminase 3 Metabolism [Source: HGNC Symbol; Acc: HGNC: 11779] DMR20:61964901 TAF4 20 61953469 62065810 ENSG00000130699 TAF4 RNA Transcription polymerase II - TATA box binding protein (TBP)-associated factor - 135 kDa DMR21:44158201 AP001055.6 21 44158740 44160076 ENSG00000225331 NA Unknown DMR22:11248401 5_8S_rRNA 22 11249809 11249959 ENSG00000276871 5.8S ribosomal Translation RNA [Source: RFAM; Acc: RF00002] DMR22:11248401 AC137488.1 22 11253605 11253719 ENSG00000277683 Unknown DMR22:32203601 RP1- 22 32205115 32269666 ENSG00000242082 NA Unknown 90G24.10 DMR22:48701801 FAM19A5 22 48489460 48850912 ENSG00000219438 family with Growth Factor sequence similarity 19 (chemokine (C-C motif)-like) - member A5 DMRX:3865201 RP11- X 3853010 3882317 ENSG00000234449 NA Unknown 706O15.3 DMRX:115191101 LRCH2 X 115110616 115234072 ENSG00000130224 leucine-rich Cytoskeleton repeats and calponin homology (CH) domain containing 2 DMRX:115191101 RBMXL3 X 115189427 115192868 ENSG00000175718 RNA binding Translation motif protein - X- linked-like 3

Table 10 (see associated .txt file). Human sperm DMR for all DMR sites, single and multiple, at a p-value threshold of 1e-04. The DMR name, chromosome location, start and stop base pair location, length in base pair (bp), number of significant windows (100 bp), p-value, number of CpG sites, CpG sites per 100 bp, and DMR associated gene symbol (annotation) are provided.

DISCUSSION

The observations described herein suggest that altered sperm DNA methylation may result from early life cancer chemotherapy exposure and correlate to alterations in sperm morphology, number and ultimately male fertility. Although other epigenetic changes could also be involved, DNA methylation has been shown to have more developmental and genome wide influences than many of the other epigenetic factors [23]. This study is the first examination of the actions of current chemotherapy regimens on the human sperm epigenome and spermatogenesis. Previous studies have suggested no evidence in humans of adverse effects of chemotherapy treatment in offspring (less than five years of age) of male cancer survivors [24-26]. However, at the time of these studies, many male survivors had not yet attempted to sire a pregnancy and the number of pregnancies from partners of male survivors were small. No studies have examined later life adult generational impacts.

Previous studies in non-human model systems have demonstrated that a variety of exposures can promote epigenetic alterations in the germline [6,7,14,27,28]. Environmental toxicants including the fungicide vinclozolin [7,8], pesticides DDT and methoxychlor [7], plastic derived compounds BPA and phthalates [15], and hydrocarbons [16] can promote altered epigenetic (DNA methylation) programming in sperm [14]. The ability of environmental exposures to promote sperm epimutations suggested that chemotherapy may also promote altered germ cell epigenetic programming. The current study was designed to investigate the effects of adolescent chemotherapy exposure on later life adult sperm epimutations. The results demonstrate the presence of DMRs or epimutations in the sperm of men that had adolescent chemotherapy exposure.

Approximately a decade had passed since the cancer patients' chemotherapy. More advanced spermatogenic cells would have been lost after 100 days following chemotherapy due to the developmental period of the spermatogenic cells in the testis. The observation of epigenetic alterations in the sperm long after chemotherapy strongly suggests that the spermatogonial stem cells in the testis had a permanent epigenetic alteration such that the adult male will produce sperm with epimutations throughout life.

The analysis and selection under high stringency (i.e. multiple site DMR with p<10⁴) identified a group (i.e. signature) of sperm epimutations associated with chemotherapy exposed individuals. The lower stringency single site DMRs identified are more variable between individuals, but also reflect chemotherapy exposure associated DMR. The presence of a significant epimutation chemotherapy signature demonstrates the ability of early life chemotherapy to promote germline epimutations.

The current study was designed to examine adolescent (i.e. pubertal) male exposure, however, since the same populations of spermatogenic stem cells are present throughout adult life, potential chemotherapy induced sperm epimutations may occur any time a male is exposed to chemotherapy. Therefore, the cryopreservation of gametes prior to chemotherapy may be important for patients and their oncologists to consider in the future [4].

The sperm epimutations identified were present on all chromosomes with a number being clustered in statistically significant over-represented groups of DMR. The clustering of DMR is speculated to represent critical regulatory regions within epigenetic control regions [22]. Interestingly, the genomic features of these human sperm chemotherapy associated epigenetics were similar to previously identified sperm epimutations. In particular, one of the major genomic features is a low density CpG content within the DMR referred to as a CpG desert [20]. The CpG density was less than ten percent and the mean was around two CpG/100 bp. Due to the evolutionary conservation of these CpG clusters in a CpG desert they are speculated to be regulatory sites [20].

The selection of DMR was focused on multiple site DMR with a high statistical significance. Although a higher rate of false positives is anticipated in the much more common single site DMRs, these single sites are anticipated to be an important component of the chemotherapy induced sperm epimutations. Expanded studies are needed to further investigate the epimutation profiles in the sperm and the physiological impacts. The degree of internal population DMR variation and genetic CNV variation indicated negligible impact on the DMR detected. A large proportion of the epimutations identified were found to have gene associations. No predominant pathways or cellular processes appear over-represented by the epimutation associated genes. Previous studies have demonstrated the ability of DMR/epimutations to cause altered somatic cell gene expression [22]. Therefore transmission of the sperm epimutations to the subsequent generation may alter somatic cell gene activity in offspring.

The germline (e.g. sperm) transmission of epigenetic information can promote the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of disease and phenotypic variation [12,13,22]. A variety of environmental factors from nutrition to toxicants have been shown in a variety of species from plants to humans to promote the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance phenomenon [6]. Since epigenetic inheritance requires the germline (egg or sperm) transmission of epigenetic information between generations [6,9-11,27,28], the alterations of epigenetic processes in the germline need to be established. Developmentally the DNA methylation is erased after fertilization to create the embryonic stem cell totipotency, which then is remethylated in a cell specific manner during embryonic development [29]. Therefore, the majority of the DNA methylation is reset upon fertilization and during primordial germ cell development of the germline [29,30].

However, a set of genes termed imprinted genes are protected from DNA methylation erasure at fertilization allowing them to be transmitted transgenerationally [6]. In the event an environmental exposure modified the epigenetic programming of the germline (e.g. sperm) and these sites become imprinted-like they can promote the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of disease [6,31]. Previous studies have documented the ability of caloric restriction to induce the epigenetic inheritance of disease in humans [11,32]. The current study identifies the ability of chemotherapy to reprogram the epigenome of the sperm. These epimutations can be transmitted to the developing embryo of the next generation. In the event these are imprinted-like epimutations then they would not be erased and would promote epigenetic inheritance to the next generation, and potentially epigenetic transgenerational inheritance to subsequent generations. The current study suggests that chemotherapy has the ability to induce epigenetic inheritance to subsequent generations.

In summary, the current study demonstrates for the first time the ability of chemotherapy to promote epigenetic reprogramming in the spermatogonial stem cell population that will lead to human sperm epimutations later in life. These DMRs have some gene associations that could influence genome activity. A highly reproducible set of epimutations (i.e. signature) was detected and may provide an epigenetic biomarker for chemotherapy exposures. The biological impact of chemotherapy induced epimutations may be to transmit altered epigenetic information to the next generation and if imprinted-like to subsequent generations progeny.

Methods Study Population and Samples

The patients were 19-30 year-old male survivors of osteosarcoma recruited from the Seattle Children's Hospital in Seattle Wash. and four collaborating institutions (Children's Hospital of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Miller Children's, Long Beach, Calif.; Children's Hospital, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; and Children's Hospital, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.). These men had been treated for their disease with cisplatin-based chemotherapy regimens, including ifosfamide in some cases, when they were 14-20 years of age. Each patient was recruited by in-clinic or mail recruitment protocols. Male survivors were eligible if they met the following criteria: alive, with no evidence of disease; diagnosed with bone or soft tissue sarcoma; off all cancer treatment, including radiation treatment, for at least 2 years; at least 15 years of age at study entry; less than 21 at diagnosis; had received cisplatin as part of cancer treatment; must not have received any other alkylating agent (Cyclophosphamide, Melphalan, Busulfan, BCNU, CCNU, Chlorambucil, Nitrogen Mustard, Procarabazine, or Thiotepa); must have received all or part of their cancer treatment at one of the collaborating sites; free of any pre-condition to cancer treatment that could result in infertility; have had no CNS, abdominal, pelvic, or gonadal radiation therapy or total body irradiation (TBI); proficiency in English as designated in patient's medical record; provided informed consent or assent, and authorization to access medical records under HIPAA. Note that relapsed patients and patients with a subsequent malignancy (SMN) that are treated with surgery alone for the relapse or SMN were eligible for this study as long as they meet the above criteria. Controls were recruited from among adult men with no history of cancer who had previously participated as controls in the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle Wash., ATLAS study [34,35]. These men were re-contacted regarding participation in the current study.

Each patient and control was asked to provide a semen sample via home seminal fluid collection, which we used to allow for ease of subject participation since the sample can be obtained without the individual traveling to a laboratory. Sperm concentration and morphology measures were performed on semen that had undergone liquefication during shipping, consistent with the WHO protocol for semen analysis [36]. For sperm concentration (per ml), each participant's semen was diluted and assessed by CASA (Computer Assisted Sperm Analysis). Three separate counts were performed and the results averaged. A known volume of semen was washed for making smears for morphology assessments, based on 200 sperm. Although sperm motility was not assessed (because it requires a fresh sample), count and morphology data nonetheless provide a great deal of information regarding spermatogenesis and abnormalities and both are associated with an increased risk of infertility [37]. All protocols were approved by the Seattle Children's Hospital institutional IRB committee (#12839 and 13158).

DNA Preparation

Frozen human sperm samples were stored at −20° C. and thawed for analysis. Genomic DNA from sperm was prepared as follows: One hundred μl of sperm suspension was used then 820 μl DNA extraction buffer (50 mM Tris pH 8, 10 mM EDTA pH 8, 0.5% SDS) and 80 μl 0.1 M Dithiothreitol (DTT) added and the sample incubated at 65° C. for 15 minutes. Eighty μl Proteinase K (20 mg/ml) was added and the sample incubated on a rotator at 55° C. for 2 hours. After incubation, 300 μl of protein precipitation solution (Promega, A795A, Madison, Wis.) was added, the sample mixed and incubated on ice for 15 minutes, then spun at 4° C. at 13,000 rpm for 20 minutes. The supernatant was transferred to a fresh tube, then precipitated over night with the same volume 100% isopropanol and 2 μl glycoblue at −20° C. The sample was then centrifuged and the pellet washed with 75% ethanol, then air-dried and resuspended in 100 μl H2O. DNA concentration was measured using the Nanodrop (Thermo Fisher, Waltham, Mass.).

Methylated DNA Immunoprecipitation MeDIP

Methylated DNA Immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) with genomic DNA was performed as follows: Human sperm DNA pools were generated using 2 μg of genomic DNA from each individual for 3 pools each of control and chemotherapy exposed subjects. Each pool contained 3 individuals for a total of n=9 per exposure group. The resulting 6 μg of genomic DNA per pool was diluted to 150 μl with 1× Tris-EDTA (TE, 10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA) and sonicated with a probe sonicator using 5×20 pulses at 20% amplitude.

Fragment size (200-800 bp) was verified on a 1.5% agarose gel. Sonicated DNA was diluted to 400 μl with 1xTE and heated to 95° C. for 10 minutes, then incubated in ice water for 10 minutes. Then 100 μl of 5× immunoprecipitation (IP) buffer (50 mM Sodium Phosphate pH 7, 700 mM NaCl, 0.25% Triton X-100) and 5 μg of 5-mC monoclonal antibody (Diagenode, Denville, N.J., C15200006-500) were added and the sample incubated on a rotator at 4° C. over night. The next day Protein A/G Agarose Beads from Santa Cruz were prewashed with 1xPBS/0.1% BSA and resuspended in 1× IP buffer.

Eighty μl of the bead slurry were added to each sample and incubated at 4° C. for 2 hours on a rotator. The bead-DNA-antibody complex was washed 3 times with 1× IP buffer by centrifuging at 6,000 rpm for 2 minutes and resuspending in 1× IP buffer. After the last wash the bead-complex was resuspended in 250 μl of digestion buffer (50 mM Tris pH 8, 10 mM EDTA pH 8, 0.5% SDS) with 3.5 μl Proteinase K (20 mg/ml) per sample and incubated on a rotator at 55° C. for 2 hours. After incubation DNA was extracted with the same volume of Phenol-Chloroform-Isoamyalcohol and then with the same volume chloroform. To the supernatant from chloroform extraction 2 μl glycoblue, 20 μl 5M Sodium Chloride and 500 μl 100% cold ethanol were added. DNA was precipitated at −20° C. over night, then spun for 20 minutes at 13,000 rpm at 4 C, washed with 75% ethanol and air-dried. Dry pellet was resuspended in 20 μl H₂O and concentration measured in Qubit using the Qubit ssDNA Assay Kit (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.).

MeDIP-Seq Analysis

The MeDIP pools were used to create libraries for next generation sequencing (NGS) at the University of Reno, Nev. Genomics Core Laboratory using the NEBNEXT® ULTRA™ RNA Library Prep Kit for Illumina® (San Diego, Calif.) starting at step 1.4 of the manufacturer's protocol to generate double stranded DNA. After this step the manufacturer's protocol was followed. Each pool received a separate index primer. NGS was performed at that same laboratory using the Illumina® HiSeq 2500 with a PE50 application, with a read size of approximately 50 bp and approximately 100 million reads per pool. Two libraries each were run in one lane comparing one control with one chemotherapy exposed pool in each lane.

CNV-Seq Analysis

Genomic DNA extracted from sperm was used to create pools containing the same individuals as used for MeDIP-seq. Equal amounts of each individual's genomic DNA were used for each pool with a final amount of 2 μg per pool. The pools were diluted to 130 μl with 1× TE buffer and sonicated in a Covaris M220 with the manufacturer's preset program to create fragments with a peak at 300 bp. Aliquots of the pools were run on a 1.5% agarose gel to confirm fragmentation. The NEBNEXT® DNA Library Kit was used to create libraries for each pool, with each pool receiving a separate index primer. The libraries were sent to the WSU Genomics Core in Spokane, Wash. for NGS on the Illumina® HiSeq 2500 using a PESO application. All 6 libraries were run in one lane and comparisons were performed. Approximately 30 million reads were obtained for each sample for comparison.

Bioinformatics and Statistics

Basic read quality was verified using summaries produced by the FastQC program [38]. The reads for each sample for both CNV and DMR analyses were mapped to the GRCh38 human genome using Bowtie2 [39] with default parameter options. The mapped read files were then converted to sorted BAM files using SAMtools [40]. To identify DMR, the reference genome was broken into 100 bp windows. The MEDIPS R package [41] was used to calculate differential coverage between control and exposure sample groups. The edgeR p-value [42] was used to determine the relative difference between the two groups for each genomic window. Windows with an edgeR p-value less than 10⁻⁴ were considered DMRs. The DMR edges were extended until no genomic window with an edgeR p-value less than 0.1 remained within 1000 bp of the DMR. CpG density and other information was then calculated for the DMR based on the reference genome. The DMRs that included at least two windows with an edgeR p-value <10⁴ were then selected for further analysis and annotated.

The cn.MOPS R package [43] was used to identify potential CNV. The cn.MOPS analysis detects CNVs by modeling read depth across all samples. The window size used by the cn.MOPS analysis was chosen dynamically for each chromosome based on the read coverage. For chromosomes 1 to 22 the window size ranged from 10 kb to 20 kb. For the MT, X, and Y chromosomes the window sizes were 1 kb, 31 kb, and 42 kb, respectively. We considered only CNV that occurred exclusively in either all control or all treatment samples.

DMR clusters were identified with R script using a 2 Mb sliding window with 50 kb intervals. DMR were annotated using the biomaRt R package [44] to access the Ensembl database [45]. The genes that overlapped with DMR were then input into the KEGG pathway search [46,47] to identify associated pathways. The DMR associated genes were manually then sorted into functional groups by consulting information provided by the DAVID [48], Panther [49], and Uniprot databases incorporated into an internal curated database.

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While the invention has been described in terms of its preferred embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. Accordingly, the present invention should not be limited to the embodiments as described above, but should further include all modifications and equivalents thereof within the spirit and scope of the description provided herein. 

1. A method of conducting in vitro fertilization (IVF) of one or more eggs from a human female, comprising obtaining a sperm sample from a human male; analyzing genomic DNA from the sperm sample for the presence of differential DNA methylation at a plurality of regions of the genomic DNA as compared to a negative control obtained from a sperm sample obtained from a human male subject who has not been exposed to chemotherapy treatment, wherein said plurality of regions include pseudogene RNF138P1, an open reading frame region of C11orf49, a promoter region of POTEG, a promoter region of NPIPA1, and a promoter region of GRAMD4P7; determining that the DNA has differential DNA methylation at one or more of the plurality of regions, then obtaining a donor sperm sample from a human sperm donor, and conducting IVF of the one or more eggs using the donor sperm sample.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said human male underwent chemotherapy treatment for a period of time at an age prior to the sperm sample being obtained.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said human male underwent chemotherapy treatment for a period of time at an age from 14 and 20 years old.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the chemotherapy treatment comprises at least one of cisplatin and ifosfamide.
 5. A method of conducting in vitro fertilization (IVF) of one or more eggs from a human female, comprising obtaining a sperm sample from a human male sperm donor; analyzing genomic DNA from the sperm sample for the presence of differential DNA methylation at a plurality of regions of the genomic DNA as compared to a negative control obtained from a sperm sample obtained from a human male subject who has not been exposed to chemotherapy treatment, wherein said plurality of regions include pseudogene RNF138P1, an open reading frame region of C11orf49, a promoter region of POTEG, a promoter region of NPIPA1, and a promoter region of GRAMD4P7; determining that the DNA does not have differential DNA methylation at one or more of the plurality of regions, then conducting IVF of the one or more eggs using the donor sperm sample, or determining that the DNA does have differential DNA methylation at one or more of the plurality of regions, then conducting IVF of the one or more eggs using a different donor sperm sample. 